Importance Of Public Open Space Health And Social Care Essay

One of the chief purposes of any public authorization is to better the quality of life. â€Å" Parks and public unfastened infinites have played an critical function to better occupants ‘ life in development of metropolis † ( Nankervis, 1998 ) . The history of public infinites could be found all over the centuries – in the medieval epoch, the communal graze infinite and metropolis square besides known as the ‘common ‘ was a important urban component. Industrial revolution might follow back the tradition of supplying for POS ( public unfastened infinites ) was recognised as a critical facet in the metropolis development ( Churchus, C. et al 2004 ) . For the bulk of 19th and early twentieth centuries, the proviso of POS within urban countries were considered as indispensable to the resident wellness of interior metropolis, where normally crowded conditions, pollution and deficiency of sanitation were an issue. Recent research defined at the beginning of the new millenary shows that â€Å" more than 60 % of the universe ‘s population lives in metropoliss. By 2025 will be over 5 billion people who live in urban contexts and in 135 metropolitan countries, the figure of occupants will transcend 4 million † ( Musco, 2006 ) . Those facets is going job ; the addition in population, deficiency of public services, growing of metropoliss by scattering of colonies and pollution in the rapid urbanisation. Therefore, abodes require more safety and to be more environmentally friendly constructed. Nowadays, POS provide leisure, diversion and advance public wellness ( Banjeree, 2001 ) every bit good as doing countries more attractive and more pleasing topographic points. Harmonizing to World Health Organization of workshop study which is â€Å" The hereafter for our kids † , Physical activities absence cause by the deficiency of unfastened infinites for diversion lead to psychological jobs, fleshiness, accidents and hurts were considered as precedences. Other facets is that kids have more clip for telecasting, computing machine games and an addition in the development lead to utilize of ‘commercial resort areas ‘ ( McKendrick et al. 2000 ) . Furthermore, the other research has identified these startling facts: 20 % of four-year-olds are fleshy and 15 % of 15-year-olds are corpulent. Evidence shows that this addition in fleshiness is linked to more sedentary life styles and a lessening in out-of-door activity. It could anticipate the grownup forms of exercising are set early in life ( Kuh, Cooper 1992 ) . Therefore, exercising deficit when immature can engender jobs in maturity, i.e. diabetes and bosom disease. It besides appears that there is a job with contaminated topographic points or ruins alternatively of unfastened infinites. Milieus without green infinite nexus to short of community sense and facet increased behavior of force compared with those that included green infinite ( Jackson, Kochtitzky 2001 ) . In add-on, the unsafe topographic point attracts vermin and can harbor condemnable activities ( Lord 1995 ) For illustration, the largest effluent sludge works and medical waste incinerator in the Northeast of New York City, where has a childhood asthma 1000 % higher than other metropolis in New York State. Children might take to play on the streets instead than in refuse and used acerate leafs of the vacant ( Maantay 2001 ) . This survey shows that land-use forms besides significantly affect the wellness of urban communities and deficiency of safe topographic points limits kid ‘s activities. In the recent survey examined different socio-economic position ( SES ) of kids play in unfastened infinite. The 94 % of parents concern sing their kid ‘s safety was the most often presented factor act uponing where kids played. Parental-safety concerns about the their kids playing were chiefly influenced by aliens, congregate teenagers/gangs unwanted behaviors such as intimidation, holding intoxicant and route traffic ( Valentine and McKendrick, 1997 ) . These concerns were peculiarly apparent among more than one-third of parents from low and mid SES countries, compared to merely 10 % of parents from high SES countries. In add-on, more than 80 % of households lived on a chief or through street, half of the parents allowed their kids to play on the street where expose autos. Therefore, the kids seem to pass more clip at place, friends ‘ houses even in the shrub, river, route and street. These safety concerns limit topographic points chances for kids ‘s drama. Though about all recognise that job exists, the best possible response has non been easy to make. Supporting green unfastened infinite and sustainable design can convey down disease, mental jobs furthermore C footmarks through ecological park, green substructure and care of allocations. It could hold long-run positive effects on public wellness, economic value of public infinite and cut downing offense, which three principal points can be justified with some groundss in following phase. London is still among the greenest capital metropoliss in the universe ( visitlondon.com/areas/parks/ ) . Londoner can bask the great out-of-doorss more than other states, besides Nottingham is good illustration because non merely there are a figure of Parkss for people, but besides people easy to entree high-quality of green infinites which make a healthier community. There is a turning concern about the wellness of the state which related peculiarly our public wellness. From the position of planning and edifice topographic points that influence people ‘s wellness, â€Å" an across-the-board attack to public wellness which respects the bar of disease and the publicity of physical and mental wellbeing † ( Honari and Boleyn 1999, Pacione, 2003 ) . The figure 1 gives more information about fleshiness already costs more in public wellness footings, and why of import the appraisal of green infinite for public wellness.i4.2 billionAnnual cost to the NHS of fleshiness and rela ted diseases50 per centDecrease in hazard of bosom onslaught by a day-to-day walk in the park91 per centPeoples who believe that public Parkss and unfastened infinites improve quality of life300 per centIncreased likeliness of occupants being physically active in residential countries with high degrees of verdure Figure 1. Greenspace Scotland 2009: Health impact appraisal of greenspace: a guide.www.cabeurl.com/30 Scots Natural Heritage and Institute of Occupational Medicine, published by greenspace Scotland First, safe and clean country encourages people to walk more and hence meet considerable wellness benefits. Surgeon General prescribed lively walking or cycling every bit small as 30 proceedingss a twenty-four hours in the park to better wellness. It has been reported to cut down bosom onslaught hazard by 50 % , ( Hakim 1999 ) diabetes by 50 % , ( The Diabetes Prevention Research Group 2002 ) colon malignant neoplastic disease by 30 % ( Slattery, Potter and Caan et al 1997 ) . Furthermore, it is estimated that â€Å" if merely one in 100 inactive people took equal exercising it could salvage the NHS in Scotland every bit much as ?85 million per twelvemonth. † ( Bird 2003 ) . Second, there is increasing grounds that ‘nature ‘ in the urban environment is benefits for both physical and mental wellness. Natural elements such as trees and lakes promote a bead in blood force per unit area and cut down emphasis feelings ( Hartig, Evans, et. Al. 2003 ) . Increasing entree to high-quality POS can bring forth significant benefits of public wellness and salvage health care costs such as fall ining a gym or traveling swimming ( Pretty, Griffin, Sellens and Pretty, 2003 ) . Therefore, being activities in outside promote physical and mental wellbeing, cut down emphasis, overcome isolation, societal coherence and relieve physical jobs. In other words, future wellness can be defined how carefully design makes healthy topographic points through public green infinites. Bing urbanization has led to kids with short of chances to play out of house and see the natural environment than old coevalss. Under the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child, kids have the right to play, diversion and civilization ( Petrie, Egharevba, Oliver and Poland, 2000 ) . Play breeds of import phenomenon for development of kids ; the growing of societal accomplishments, experimentation about the crises of confrontation and the publicity of physical activity. Baranowski T. et Al besides defined â€Å" natural unfastened infinite for kids, that being out-of-doorss is the most powerful correlative of physical activity, and contact with nature can significantly cut down the psychological hurt caused by emphasis † . First, activity in public, green infinites bring benefit to kids enduring from Attention Deficit Disorder ( ADD ) . Evidence shows that green infinite activities such as fishing, association football were 85 % regarded the behavior of kids with ADD, while no n-green activities such as video games, watching telecasting were merely 43 % improved as good ( Taylor 2001 ) . Second, topographic points with trees and grass encourage better chances for kids ‘s playing than infinites without such eclogical elements. For illustration, in inner-city Chicago, kids ‘s playing was monitored in environing flat blocks where were likewise planned trees and grass. Playing in the green infinites found significantly higher degrees of originative than in the waste countries. Children playing in the green infinites had more chance for mental growing, this facet can better the interpersonal accomplishments development ( Taylor 2001 ) . In add-on, well-designed infinites will supply to make full fewer chances than old coevalss through supplying kids with chances for exercising and propensity. The crime-ridden territory can alter to attractive, safe topographic points and better topographic point value by public unfastened infinite. First, community gardens were shown important decrease in offense rate. A positive illustration emerges from Southern Ontario, Canada, a community garden was attempted on the old rubbish shit site, which attracted local felons and was avoided by the 1200 local occupants as a consequence drastic 30 % bead in offense through environmental design. Furthermore, this decrease has encouraged occupants to utilize the streets more at dark, including better communicating with different cultural groups ( McKay 1998 ) . Such alterations can advance everyone to run into the greatest of public infinites. Indeed, good-quality public infinites link to good direction to forestall from slumism. Second, turn uping propinquity to public infinite b economic value and trading by taking more people for retail merchants. It has been shown that well-planned public inf inites betterments in town Centres could bring forth commercial trading by up to 40 % and the growing of private sector investing ( DoE and The Association of Town Centre Management, Managing Urban Spaces in Town Centres 1997 ) . â€Å" Small concerns taking a new concern location rank the sum of unfastened infinite and propinquity to Parkss and diversion as the number-one precedence in site choice. † ( The Trust for Public Land, Economic Benefits of Open Space, 2001 ) Third, The local economic system can accomplish important positive impact from a high-quality public landscape in footings of exciting addition in value of house, since prorerty-buyers prefer to be near green infinite. For illustration, in Berlin by 2000, near to resort areas in residential countries and a high figure of street trees was found to increase 16 % in the values of belongings. ( Luther, Gruehn 2001 ) . In Leiden, Netherlands, a position of a park have been shown to raise the house monetary values by 8 % to compare with a position of an flat block, which can cut down the monetary value by 7 % . The value of places was at least 15 % higher by the presence of green infinites, where the bulk of occupants mentioned the public green infinites as a major factor in their moving determination into the country. ( Luttik 2000 ) When the environment is unattractive, Unsafe, i.e. ‘unwalkable ‘ urban countries, can do it difficult to accomplish the demands of physical activity and interaction between occupants and nature country by the deficiency of verdure and dominated traffic. It will supply unproductive life manner. Inclusive high-quality, well-maintained public infinites that encourage walking, cycling and assorted activities have a positive consequence on our wellness. In other words, POS is a powerful arm in the battle against fleshiness and unwellness. Responsibility explained the interrelatedness between wellness, wellbeing and sustainability and urban design betterments undertaken as portion of a wider scheme can engender even more dramatic consequences ; switching forms of illness, population, public wellness, besides conveying down C footmarks. Probably, carefully design can cover with complex demands in simple ways. However, above all, integrated decision-making should be preceded by p olicymakers, besides they should concern bing communities and renovations. This research has deal with sustainable, promotive wellness environments together with the refering wellness and wellbeing. This win-win scheme in sustainability benefits accrue from every planning procedure through more collaborative working. Open infinite will go firmly portion of regulation and community development. Approach to public unfastened infinite maximises its possible to lend to a more inclusive and sustainable 1 on a local, regional and national degree that will heighten a broad scope of ends.

Comparing the Fall of Han China and Roman Empire Essay

Han China and Rome were two of the most powerful and popular empires of their time, but they fell like any other empire before them. Han China and Rome’s Empires had the same causes for their declines, but their effects are different. The major reasons for the fall of Rome are truly those that have to do with Rome’s political and economic state. One of the Rome’s problems prior to its fall was the lack of respect for authority, among the citizens and military forces. All the attacks from the barbarians caused problems in the military. This basically led to a lot of political turmoil because of all the chaos that was born, and it started to make the military crumble as well. Rome’s economy started to go downhill too, after a long period of time, especially because of the gold. The Romans started using gold (coins) and because of that the trade shortage of the eastern regions of the Empire served to block the growth of wealth in the west. The major reasons for Han China Empire’s fall were also because of their economic and political problems, but the effects are different. One of Han China’s problems was the uprising of desperate and hungry peasants. Another problem was their lack of authority to the Han government, which caused the economic problem. The Han Empire was being invaded by nomads, which were also known as barbarians. These barbarians kept invading the empire and made them have to keep fighting, and provide military forces. This worsened the economy and Han finances. Han government had to hire foreign soldiers who only wanted to be paid for their services which made the economy even worse.

How are Tourist Destinations in the Mediterranean Region Affected by the Power of Travel Agencies

How are Tourist Destinations in the Mediterranean Region Affected by the Power of Travel Agencies Aims and objectives The future study will be aimed at examining the influence of travel agencies on various tourist destinations in the Mediterranean region. It is vital to achieve several objectives. First of all, one should demonstrate how and why travel agencies choose to promote certain regions or countries.Advertising We will write a custom proposal sample on How are Tourist Destinations in the Mediterranean Region Affected by the Power of Travel Agencies? specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Secondly, much attention should be paid to the exact mechanisms through which these organizations can influence tourist destinations. It is critical to focus on the economic performance of various companies that represent the tourist industry in a specific country or region. Finally, one should study the positive and negative impacts of this influence. These are the main issues that should be examined. Research question How are tourist destinati ons in the Mediterranean region affected by the power of travel agencies? Literature review The main goal of this literature review is to examine academic sources which throw light on the functioning of travel agencies. It is vital to focus on the studies which can demonstrate that these organizations can influence the economic performance of tourist destinations. Apart from that, this literature review should demonstrate the importance of these service companies for the Mediterranean region. Finally, much attention should be paid to the methodology that should be used for the future study. To a great extent, the research will be based on the notion of destination branding (Jalilvand, Esfahani Samiei, 2010). To some degree, travel agencies take part in the formation of clients’ perceptions and attitudes toward a certain tourist site. In many cases, they pay attention to the reputation of a travel agency (Ferencov, 2012). Therefore, they can significantly increase the popular ity of a destination. On the whole, travel agencies pay attention to various characteristics while selecting which tourist destination should be promoted. In particular, they focus on the presence of natural and cultural sites, climate, and service industry in a particular region, infrastructure, and security (PrebeÃ… ¾ac Mikulić, 2008, p. 170; Blzquez, Molina, Esteban, 2012).Advertising Looking for proposal on communications media? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More This is one of the main issues that can be identified. Apart from that, the governments of developing countries are extremely concerned about the attitudes of travel agencies since they can influence the decisions of customers (Mariutti, de Moura Engracia Giraldi Crescitelli, 2013, p. 17). In this way, they attempt to boost the economic development of various regions. One should take into consideration that travel agencies help clients learn more ab out various characteristics of a tourist destination. This is one of the main points that can be made. The study carried out by Iris Mihajlović (2012) suggests that travel agencies can profoundly affect the choices of consumers by highlighting the advantages of going to a particular country, region, or resort. Secondly, they can provide an evaluation of the service industry in a certain destination as well as its most popular attractions. In other words, these organizations can be viewed as the major intermediaries between a customer and service providers. Furthermore, customers are more likely to put trust in the recommendations or assessments offered by travel agencies. This is why the role of these companies should not be overlooked. Moreover, one can look at the research conducted by Dimitrios Buhalist (2000). This scholar shows that the performance of many hospitality organizations is affected by the distribution channels, especially travel agencies. This study suggests tha t the hospitality organizations, which are based on the Mediterranean region, have to accept the power of travel agencies. It should be kept in mind that they can reduce the perceived risk that can be experienced by clients (Buhalist, 2000, p. 115). Moreover, they can facilitate the communication between customers and eventual suppliers of service (Buhalist, 2000, p. 115). Provided that this link is absent, a client is not likely to go to a tourist destination. Apart from that, travel agencies offer many supplementary services related to insurance or obtaining visas. This assistance is of critical importance to many people. Overall, findings of researchers indicate that the competitive position of a hotel depends on its cooperation with tour operators (Buhalist, 2000, p. 136).Advertising We will write a custom proposal sample on How are Tourist Destinations in the Mediterranean Region Affected by the Power of Travel Agencies? specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Overall, there are other studies that are aimed at determining the choices of customers who want to travel to the Mediterranean resorts. For instance, Izquierdo-Yusta and MartÄ ±nez-Ruiz (2011) note that travel agencies facilitate customers’ search for information. They help customers and suppliers to establish mutual trust (Izquierdo-Yusta MartÄ ±nez-Ruiz, 2011, p. 80). In turn, tourist destinations are not likely to enjoy popularity among people provided that travel agents do not pay attention to them. Furthermore, these organizations can demonstrate that a certain resort is suitable for various types of clients who can differ in terms of income level, marital status, interest, values, and so forth. This is one of the main issues that should be singled out. Therefore, it is possible to say that travel agencies can significantly increase the profitability of airlines or hotels that can be based in a particular tourist destination. In contrast, th e absence of their participation can eventually result in the downturn of economic activities in this particular destination. This is the main argument that can be put forward. It should be taken into account that various Mediterranean countries compete with one another in effort to increase their market share (Patsouratis, Frangouli Anastasopoulos, 2005). One should not suppose that the performance of tourist destination is affected only by travel agencies. Researchers argue the exchange rate can be a powerful factor that shapes the purchasing decisions of clients (Patsouratis et al. 2005, p. 1865). Furthermore, the competiveness of the tourist industry depends on its ability of various companies to make use of information technology (Burgess et al., 2011). Additionally, one should not forget about the environmental policies of the government (Selwyn, 2008). These factors also play an important role. Overall, this problem can be examined in both qualitative and quantitative way. F irst of all, it is critical to study the way in which travel agencies can present information about various tourist sites in the Mediterranean region. Overall, one should concentrate on the efforts of these organizations to promote a particular city, country or region as place that can attract travelers. This will be the independent variable of research. In turn, there are specific characteristics which can be used to evaluate the competitiveness of a particular destination. It is necessary to focus on tourism participation index, the number of tourists, the financial performance of airlines, or hotels (Navickas Malakauskait ,2009). These are the main dependent variables that should be examined.Advertising Looking for proposal on communications media? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More To a great extent, this literature review suggests that travel agencies have the capacity to influence tourist destination. Nevertheless, it is critical to focus on the particular region. These are the main tasks that should be addressed. Reference List Blzquez, J., Molina, A., Esteban, . (2012). Key quality attributes according to the tourist product. European Journal Of Tourism Research, 5(2), 166-170. Buhalist, D. (2000). Relationships in the Distribution Channel of Tourism: Conflicts Between Hoteliers and Tour Operators in the Mediterranean Region. Global Alliances In Tourism Hospitality Management, 1(1), 113-139. Burgess, S., Sellitto, C., Cox, C., Buultjens, J. (2011). Trust perceptions of online travel information by different content creators: Some social and legal implications. Information Systems Frontiers, 13(2), 221-235. Ferencov, M. (2012). Travel Agency and its Image Factor Influencing the Attitude   of Tourism Client towards the Choice of a Holiday Package. Inte rnational Journal Of Business Social Science, 3(19), 309-316. Izquierdo-Yusta, A., MartÄ ±nez-Ruiz, M. (2011). Assessing the consumer’s choice of purchase channel in the tourism sector: Evidence from Spain. EuroMed Journal of Business, 6 (1), 1450-2194. Jalilvand, M., Esfahani, S., Samiei, N. (2010). Destination Branding and Tourists Attitudes (The Case of Isfahan as a Tourism Destination in Iran). International Journal Of Marketing Studies, 2(2), 235-244. Mariutti, F., de Moura Engracia Giraldi, J., Crescitelli, E. (2013). The Image of Brazil as a Tourism Destination: An Exploratory Study of the American Market. International Journal Of Business Administration, 4(1), 13-22. Mihajlović, I. (2012). The Impact of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) as a Key Factor of Tourism Development on the Role of Croatian Travel Agencies. International Journal Of Business Social Science, 3(24), 151-159. Navickas, V., Malakauskaite, A. (2009). The Possibilities for the Identification and Evaluation of Tourism Sector Competitiveness Factors. Engineering Economics, 61(1), 37-44. Patsouratis, V., Frangouli, Z., Anastasopoulos, G. (2005). Competition in Tourism among the Mediterranean Countries. Applied Economics, 37(16), 1865-1870. PrebeÃ… ¾ac, D., Mikulić, J. (2008). Destination image and key drivers of perceived destination attractiveness. Market, 20(2), 163-178. Selwyn, T. (2008). Tourism and the Environment in the Mediterranean. Suomen  Antropologi: Journal Of The Finnish Anthropological Society, 33(4), 91-95.

Co-ownership on Family Home Essay Example

Co Co-ownership on Family Home Essay Co-ownership on Family Home Essay in Baumgartner v Baumgartner30, the court held that the foundation for the imposition of a constructive trust was that a refusal to recognise the existence of the equitable interest amounts to unconscionable conduct and that the trust is imposed as a remedy to circumvent that. The majority of the judges here considered the determination of the terms of a constructive trust in such cases. The Baumgartner 31principles, if properly applied, may achieve a reasonable degree of justice and equity in the determination of de facto property issues. However, there lacked clear guidance and reasonable predictability, and hence a difficulty to advise clients. The non-recognition of non-financial contributions means that, to succeed, a party must establish a Baumgartner 32type constructive trust or other equitable device. While the current position is a significant advance on the common law regime for resolving property issues between cohabitants on relationship breakdown, it remains imperfect and fragmented. In Canada, the Supreme Court of Canada in Pettkus v Becker33 used the constructive trust to award a woman an equal share in property acquired by her partner during a nineteen-year relationship, in which both were working together on a farm, concluding that he would be unjustly enriched if her contribution to the acquisition of this property was not recognised. The constructive trust in Canada has evolved into a broad equitable remedy for giving property based recognition for domestic contributions at the end of a non-marital relationship. This is seen in Peter v Beblow34, whereby, MacLachlin J made it clear that this constructive trust claim could be based on purely domestic contributions and in Nowell v Town Estate35 where the Court invoked the related doctrine of unjust enrichment to award a woman $300,000 after the end of a 30-year quasi-spousal relation-ship, despite the fact that the man continued to maintain his primary residence with his wife throughout the relationship. It is clear that the corpus is made up of English thinking with the traditional analysis, Australian bringing about quasi-marital property division with a constructive trust but on the basis of unconscionability, and in Canada good conscience as well as unjust enrichment. However, it remains unclear how receptive the courts are to the notions of unconscionability and unjust enrichment being the underlying principles of estoppel. This willingness does not appear to be obvious across the board and the approach of the English courts has become too rule-orientated. One of the significant shortcomings in the English law is that the courts may have become too rule-orientated, in searching for legal clarity, as reflected by the rigid interpretation of Rosset36 and, in particular, the requirement for direct financial contributions. Once the courts recognise that the common intention approach need not be dictated solely by the rigid rule, it allows greater flexibility for the courts to take into consideration a wider range of contributions, direct and indirect. The courts assessment should include consideration of the whole course of conduct between the parties, as well as the effects of sexual division of labour in the relationship and how that may impact on the claimants resources in terms of making contributions, whether direct or indirect, towards the relationship. Refocusing on these issues may cover the way for a principled basis of deciding family property disputes which is less gender biased. No doubt, it would be an easier approach to protect the cohabitants through the passing of legislation similar to those that protect married couples and civil partners and this seems to be the case today after the suggested reforms seen in Cohabitation: The Financial Consequences of Relationship Breakdown37 and Sharing Homes38 by the Law Commission. The vital importance throughout common law history of the trust creators intent has left instead a shifting sand of theory of what it is that constitutes a trust. All the adjectives express, implied, resulting, and constructive merely had us chasing the peripheral. Hence, it is undeniable that a better change is needed to mend the imperfection identified above.

Analyze the handover between two WLAN, two Wimax and two UMTS networks

Analyze the handover between two WLAN, two Wimax and two UMTS networks ABSTRACT In recent years, telecommunication has flourished extensively so much that several areas of studies coexist now thanks to multiple technologies. One of them is heterogeneous handover which is a concept that aims to provide continuity of connection while crossing different networks. In this thesis, our main objective is to analyze the handover between two WLAN, two Wimax and two UMTS networks. The vertical handover decision is taken on the basis of various algorithms such as variance-based algorithm, taguchi algorithm, which calculates the variance of parameters such as delay, jitter, bandwidth and packet loss for the above networks, and selection of the network having most parameters with minimum score. These algorithms are calculated and the decision factors for each wireless network are compared, in order to detect and trigger a vertical handover. The factors can be classified as beneficial, i.e., the larger, the better, or on the basis of cost, i.e., the lower, the better. This algorithm is also compared with other algorithms such as MEW (Multiplicative experiment weighting), SAW (Simple Additive Weighting), TOPOSIS (Technique for order preference by similarity to ideal solution) and GRA (Grey Relational Analysis). These algorithms are appropriate for different traffic classes. Simulation results for the proposed algorithm in Matlab is discussed and compared with other multiple attribute decision making algorithms on the basis of bandwidth, jitter, delay etc. It can be seen that the proposed algorithm causes the minimum packet delay than others. Jitter is also comparatively less than other algorithms. Besides, it provides the highest bandwidth than any other MADM algorithm. Keywords:-UMTS, SAW, MEW, GRA, TOPSIS, WLAN and Wimax Chapter-1 Introduction 1.1 History of mobile services ‘ The journey of mobile telephony began with the 1st generation services. The design for it was developed by AMPS (Advanced mobile phone system) in 1970 and it is based on analog cellular technology. The data bandwidth provided by the system was just 1.9 kbps and it used TDMA multiplexing. Then, the 2nd generation of mobile services was introduced in 1981.The 2G systems are still largely used for voice calls. The data bandwidth provided was 14.4 kbps [1] and the technology used was TDMA and CDMA. It is based on digital technology and also provided short messaging services or SMS along with voice communication. Similarly, it provided circuit switched data communication services at low speed. In 1999, the technology switched to 2.5 G, which used GPRS, EDGE as the standards. It provided higher throughput for data service up to 384 kbps. Later, in 2002, the 3G services were introduced, providing high quality audio, video and data services. Which also provided broadband data capabilities up to 2 Mbps. It mainly uses packet switched technology which utilizes the bandwidth more efficiently. In 2010, when 4th generation of cellular technology was introduced, it was expected to complement and replace the 3G networks. The key features of 4G mobile networks is that it can deliver information anywhere and anytime using seamless connection.4G network is an IP based network which gives access through collection of various radio interfaces. Its network provides access to best possible service with seamless handoff, combining multiple radio interfaces into a single network for subscriber to use. Thus, users have different services with an increased coverage. It does not matter whether there is failure or loss of one or more networks, the 4G technology keeps all the networks integrated into IP based system, which require vertical handoff for seamless connection between the networks. As the number of users are responsible for enhancing the qu ality of 4G service, the very process becomes an indispensable component. While the 4G technology has its genesis in the idea of invasive computing, software defined radio is the prominent adhesive behind the entire process. Here the software defined radio is programmable and able to transmit and receive a wide range of frequencies while emulating any transmission format. It should offer high speed of 100 Mbits for stationary mobile and 20 Mbits while travelling having network capacity 10 times faster than 3G networks. This increases the download speed to 1 second for 1Mbyte of file compared to 200 seconds in 3G networks. Which should support fast speed volume data transmission at lower cost. The obviously it should provide seamless connection between multiple wireless networks and mobile networks. For this, the support of vertical handoff is essential. Apart from it, it is expected that seamless multimedia services are provided it being an IP-based system, which also replaces SS7 (signaling system 7) that consumes considerable amount of bandwidth. Due to IP-based network, optimum usage of bandwidth is expected. 1.2 Motivation ‘ There are several communication systems such as the Ethernet, Wireless LAN, GPRS and 3G coexisting with their own different characteristics such as bandwidth, delay and cost. Wireless mobile users require high quality of service (QoS) and one of the factors directly affecting QoS is the number of call drops. Therefore, it has to be reduced or eliminated, possibly, to achieve high QoS. The number of call drops experienced by a system mainly depends on its channel assignment and handoff schemes. Since majority of WLANs are deployed in the areas like hotels, cafes, airports, offices, etc, the speed of the users are generally normalized within the WLAN coverage area. In WLAN/Cellular network interworking, a user can either have access from micro layer or from macro layer of cellular network depending whether he wants slow or fast speed. Basically, in cellular networks, user speed is the primary factor to determine whether a user is fast or slow and that information is subsequently used to handle vertical handoff. Since the speed information about the users are not directly available when they are in WLAN coverage area ,the vertical handoff schemes employed in cellular networks are not directly suitable for solving vertical handoff problem in Cellular/WLAN interworking. This raises to many important questions. Assume that the speed of each user in a WLAN coverage area is within small threshold value. Normally, when a user is outside WLAN coverage area, the type of user whether fast or slow, is determined on the basis of the user speed. Now the question is how to determine the type of user, whether fast or slow, when it is within the WLAN coverage area? A fast user can become slow temporarily due to various conditions such as traffic signals, turns, etc. Is the speed alone sufficient to determine whether a user is slow or fast? If not then (i) What other parameters can be used to determine whether a user is fast or slow and, ii) How can they be obtained? In fact, this lack of clarity inspired the researcher to develop a vertical Handoff decision algorithm to solve vertical handoff problems. 1.3 Scope of thesis ‘ With greater mobility and easy acces, telecommunication consumers have become demanding, seeking services anywhere and anytime. Thus, the integration of WLAN (Wireless LAN), Wimax and cellular networks such as WCDMA (wideband CDMA) system should be error free for seamless efficient communication which is the 4th generation technology. The seamless and efficient handover between different access technologies known as vertical handover is essential and remains a challenging problem. The 4G is seen as convergence and integration of various wireless access technologies. The existing cellular systems such as GSM and CDMA2000 support low bandwidth over a large coverage area. However, the wireless networks such as WLAN supports high bandwidth over a short coverage area. Moreover one of the major design issues of 4G is the support of vertical handover. Interestingly this is different from a ‘horizontal handoff’ between different wireless access points that use the same technology. Switching between two dissimilar networks for mobile terminal (e.g. between UMTS WLAN) is termed as Vertical Handover A vertical handover involves two different network interfaces for different wireless technologies. It can happen in two ways. Firmly when the mobile user moves into the network that has higher bandwidth and limited coverage, a vertical handover request is generated since the mobile user may want to change its connection to the higher bandwidth network to enjoy the higher bandwidth service. This type of vertical handover is called downward vertical handoff. Secondly when the mobile user moves out of its serving higher bandwidth network, it has to request a vertical handover to change its connection to the network with low bandwidth and wide coverage. This type of vertical handover is called upward vertical handover. Chapter-2 Research objectives 2.1 Objectives The present research aims at making comparison between various existing multiple attribute decision making algorithms for realization of vertical handoff such as MEW (Multiplicative Exponent Weighting), SAW (Simple Additive weighting), TOPSIS (Technique for order preference by similarity to ideal solutions) and GRA (Grey relational Analysis) which are MADM (Multiple attribute decision making) ranking algorithms and the proposed vertical decision algorithm. For this comparison, various heterogeneous networks such as UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunication services), WLAN (Wireless Local area networks), WiMAX (Worldwide interoperability for microwave access) need to be taken into consideration. Comparison will be mostly on the basis of various parameters such as bandwidth, jitter, packet delay, packet loss, etc. In addition, the comparison may be for different types of traffics such as data connections and voice connections. As all the above mentioned algorithms are multiple attribute algorithm, due importance is given to parameters to be considered in the algorithms. The performance evaluation of the proposed decision algorithm should be done on the basis of parameters mentioned above. For various types of traffics, how the algorithm performs can be seen. Depending on the performance, we can conclude Which algorithm is suitable for which traffics. In voice connections, 70 % importance is given to the packet delay and jitter i.e. by assigning weights to these parameters and equal distribution of weights to the other parameters or attributes. If any of the algorithms performs well then that particular algorithm can be considered to be best suited for voice connections. In da ta connections, 70% importance is given to the parameters such as bandwidth i.e. by assigning the weight to the bandwidth and remaining weight is equally distributed among the parameters. If any of the algorithm performs well in this case, then the particular algorithm is suitable for the data connections. The ultimate aim being development of a decision making algorithm which works well for both voice connections and data connections. ‘ 2.2 Methodology In order to realize vertical handoff using the existing multiple attribute decision making algorithm and evaluate the performance of each of the algorithms along with the proposed algorithm, we are considering the selection of network in 4G environment. Here, three types of networks such as UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunication services), WLAN (Wireless Local area networks), WiMAX (Worldwide interoperability for microwave access) are combined and there will be two networks of each type. In this thesis, four decision criteria are evaluated and compared to realize vertical handoff considering the available bandwidth (Mbps), packet delay (ms), packet jitter and packet loss (per 106 packets). The range of value for various parameters are as follows: Available bandwidth for UMTS network 0.1-2Mbps, Packet delay for UMTS network 25-50ms, Jitter for UMTS network 5-10ms. Bandwidth for WLAN network 1-54Mbps, Packet delay for WLAN network 100-150ms, Jitter for WLAN network 10-20ms. Bandwidth for Wimax network is 1-60Mbps, while for packet delay for Wimax network is 60-100ms, and Jitter for Wimax network is 3-10ms.The values for the weights to be assigned for different services are considered as Case1: packet delay and jitter are given 70 % importance and the rest is equally distributed among other parameters, this case is suited for voice connections and whereas Case 2: available bandwidth is given as 70% importance, this case is suited for data connections. For each algorithm, 10 vertical decisions were considered of each case separately. Performance evaluation is done for two cases namely voice connections and data connections. These cases are evaluated using MATLAB v7.6 release 2009 software tool. Next, by using artificial neural network, we can design a system to take vertical handoff decision. Here, input parameters such as samples of received signal strength and bandwidth is applied to input layer, hidden layer does some processing depending upon the number of neurons and the algorithm chosen. The output layer gives the ID of selected candidate network. In, ANN-based method, there is handoff between WLAN and Cellular networks. Here, two parameters are taken into consideration i.e. RSS a Bandwidth as an input for neural network. The RSS samples for training neural network for both WLAN cellular networks are -60dBm,-70 dBm,-80 dBm,-90 dBm. Similarly, bandwidth samples for WLAN are 54, 30,10,1 Mbps. Bandwidth samples for cellular network are 14.4, 9.6, 4.5,2 kbps. By using combination of RSS bandwidth parameters, we could make 256 samples of input for ANN. These samples of output samples for vertical handoff decision are also fed to ANN. Using Levenberg-Marquardt method for ANN, 180 samples are used for training, 38 samples for validation and 38 samples for testing. Based on ANN developed system, it could take vertical handoff decision from cellular to WLAN. Lastly, ns-2 software tool can also be used. NS-2 simulation is done using nodes of 802.11 and nodes of 802.16 Wimax. Four nodes of 802.11 nodes (Access points) are used and four nodes of 802.16 nodes (Base station) NIST module of 802.16e are used in ns-2. In this case, out of the existing algorithm best algorithm with best score is selected for triggering vertical handoff decision. Here, in this case, various parameters such as Bandwidth, Bit error rate, trust level etc were considered for vertical handoff decision. This can be tested against various available traffics in ns2 such as CBR (Constant bit rate) which corresponds to real time traffic (for voice communication) and FTP (file transfer Protocol) which corresponds to non real time traffic. The performance evaluation for various traffics can be done on various parameters such as Packet delivery ratio, throughput, jitter and packet dropping ratio etc with simulation time. 2.3 Related Work Enrique Stevens Navarro and Vincent W.S.Wong [2], in their paper, have compared four different vertical handoff decision algorithm namely, MEW (Multiplicative Exponent Weighting), SAW (Simple Additive Weighting), TOPSIS (Technique for Order Preference by Similarity to Ideal Solution), and GRA (Grey Relational Analysis). All four algorithms allow different parameters (e.g., bandwidth, delay, packet loss rate, cost) to be considered for vertical handoff decision [2]. Both Authors found that MEW, SAW, and TOPSIS provide almost the same performance to all four traffic classes. Only GRA gives a slightly higher bandwidth and lower delay for interactive and background traffic classes. Jose.D.Martinez, Ulises Pinedo-Rico and Enrique Stevens Navarro, in their paper, have given a comparative analysis of the multiple attribute decision algorithms [3]. In this paper, the authors provided a simulation study of several vertical handoff decision algorithms in order to understand its performance for different user applications. They considered two different applications: voice and data connections. Algorithms such as SAW (Simple Additive Weighting) and TOPSIS (Technique for Order Preference by Similarity to Ideal Solution) are suitable for voice connections. These algorithms provided the lower values of jitter and delay packet available in a 4G wireless network. In a data connection case, GRA (Grey Relational Analysis) and MEW (Multiplicative Exponent Weighting) algorithms provided the solution with highest available bandwidth necessary for this application. Chapter-3 Classification of vertical handoff algorithms 3.1 Need for vertical handoff Currently, the trend in mobile communications is not one network technology replacing another, but the interoperability between different overlapping networks. Therefore it is obvious that many wireless networks will coexist and can complement each other in an all-IP based heterogeneous wireless network. This can facilitate mobile users’ access to internet easily and connectivity of IP anywhere, anytime using the ‘best’ possible network. This is mainly due to the fact that different wireless networking technologies have their own advantages and drawbacks. Access to various wireless systems results in heterogeneous networks that can offer overlapping coverage of multiple networks with different technologies. For example, low cost and high speed Wi-Fi (WLAN) network will be accessible within limited range of ‘hot-spot’ areas and will be complimented with cellular network offering wide area coverage such as UMTS or Wimax. As a consequence, some fundament al problems must be solved for the users to navigate a 4G wireless network seamlessly. For this, mobile terminal equipped with multiple interfaces to handle different technologies is required. Furthermore, applications running on mobile terminal with multi-mode terminals in a 4G environment can switch between different networks supporting different technologies without degrading the quality of the link. But the Internet routing model forces mobile terminal to find new IP address for an interface while roaming in another network in 4G environment. It is assumed that applications can easily manage mobility and can handoff to the best possible network; of course some method is required to adjust media streams to the bandwidth available. 3.1 Types of vertical handoff There are various ways to classify vertical handoff algorithms. In this thesis, we have classified the vertical handoff algorithms into four groups based on the handoff criteria as given below: RSS-based algorithms: RSS is used as the main handoff decision criteria in this group. Different strategies have been developed to compare the RSS of the present point of attachment. In this RSS-based horizontal handoff decision, strategies are classified into the following six subcategories namely: relative received signal strength, relative received signal strength with threshold, relative received signal strength with hysteresis and threshold, and prediction techniques. For vertical handoff decision, relative received signal strength cannot be applicable since the signal strength from different types of networks cannot be compared directly due to the different technologies involved. For example, different thresholds for different networks. Furthermore, other network parameters such as bandwidth are combined with RSS in the vertical handoff decision process. Bandwidth-based algorithms: Available bandwidth for a mobile terminal is the main criterion in this group. In some algorithms, both bandwidth and signal strength information are used in the decision process. Depending on whether RSS or bandwidth is the main criteria an algorithm is categorized either as signal strength based or bandwidth based. Cost function based algorithms: This class of algorithms combine metrics such as monetary cost, security, bandwidth and power consumption in a cost function based algorithm, and the handoff decision is made by comparing the score of this function for the candidate networks. Different weights are allotted to the different input parameters depending on the network conditions and user preferences. ANN and fuzzy logic based algorithms: These vertical handoff decision algorithms attempt to use richer set of inputs than others for making handoff decisions. When a large number of inputs are used, it is very difficult or impossible to develop, formulate handoff decision processes. Analytically hence, it is better to apply machine learning techniques to formulate the processes. The survey reveals that for the fuzzy logic and artificial neural networks based techniques can be used. The Fuzzy logic systems allow expertise of humans for qualitative thinking to be incorporated as algorithms to enhance the efficiency. If there exists comprehensive set of input-desired output pattern, artificial neural networks can be trained to create handoff decision algorithms. By using consistent and real-time learning techniques, the systems can monitor their performance and change their own structure to create very effective handoff decision algorithms. 3.3.1 RSS based vertical handoff In this, the handoff decisions are made by comparing RSS (received signal strength) of the current network with the preset threshold values. These algorithms are less complex and may be combined with other parameters such as bandwidth, cost etc to have a better handover decisions. We describe here three RSS based algorithms in the following sections. A) ALIVE-HO (adaptive lifetime based vertical handoff ) algorithm – Zahran, Chen and Sreenan proposed algorithm for handover between 3G networks and WLAN by combining the RSS with an estimated lifetime (duration over which the current access technology remains beneficial to the active applications). ALIVE-HO always uses an uncongested network whenever available. It continues using the preferred network (i.e. WLAN) as long as it satisfies the QoS requirements of the application [5]. Two different vertical handoff scenarios let us discuss: Moving out of the preferred network (MO) and Moving in to the preferred network (MI), where the preferred network is usually the underlay network that provides better and economical service. Hence, extending the utilization of WLAN as long as it provides satisfactory performance is the main consideration of vertical handoff algorithm design. We observe the method through the following scenarios. In the first scenario, when the MT moves away from the coverage area of a WLAN into a 3G cell, a handover to the 3G network is initiated. The handover is done under following conditions: (a) RSS average of the WLAN falls below predefined threshold. (MO threshold) and (b) the estimated lifetime is at least equal to the required handoff signaling delay. The MT continuously calculates the RSS mean using the moving average method.[4] [K] = Here [k] is RSS mean at time instant k, and Wav is the window size, a variable that changes with velocity of the velocity of mobile terminal. Then, the lifetime metric EL [k] is calculated by using [k], ASST Application signal strength threshold),S[k],RSS change rate. EL[k] = [k] ‘ ASST S[k] ASST (Application signal strength threshold) chosen to satisfy the requirements of the active applications. S[K] represents RSS decay rate. In second scenario, when the MT moves towards a WLAN cell, the handover to the WLAN is done if the average RSS is larger than MI Threshold. WLAN and the available bandwidth of the WLAN meet the bandwidth requirement of the application. Table 3.1 given below shows lost frames during the handoff transition area for the received stream. ASST (in dBs) -90 -89 -88 -87 -86 -85 Lost frames_100kbit/s 13.3 5 3 0.67 0 0 Lost frames_300kbit/s 38 28 4 0.33 0 0 Table 3.1 Frames lost corresponding to ASST [5] Based on the results obtained and subjective testing, the optimal value for UDP based streaming is chosen as -86dB. Firstly by introducing EL[k], the algorithm adapts to the application requirements and reduces unnecessary handovers. Secondly, there is an improvement on the average throughput for user because MT prefers to stay in WLAN cell as long as possible. However, packet delay grows due to the critical fading impact near the cell edges, which may result in severe degradation in the user perceived QoS. This phenomenon results in a tradeoff between improving the system resource utilization and satisfying the user QoS requirements. This issue can be critical for delay sensitive applications and degrade their performance. Here ASST is tuned according to various system parameters, including delay thresholds, MT velocities, handover signaling costs and packet delay penalties. B) Algorithm on Adaptive RSS Threshold Mohanty and Akyildiz, in their paper, have proposed a WLAN to 3G handover decision method [6]. In this method, RSS of current network is compared with dynamic RSS threshold (Sth) when MT is connected to a WLAN access point. We observe the following notations with reference to fig 3.1 which shows a handoff from current network (AP) referred as WLAN, to the future network (BS), referred as 3G. Fig 3.1 Analysis of handoff process [6] * Sth: The threshold value of RSS to initiate the handover process. Therefore, when the RSS of WLAN referred to as ORSS (old RSS) in fig 3.1 drops below Sth, the registration procedures are initiated for MT’s handover to the 3G network. * a:The cell size we assume that the cells are of hexagonal shape. d: It is the shortest distance between the point at which handover is initiated and WLAN boundary. We observe the Path loss Model given by; Pr(x) = Pr (d0) + Where x is the distance between the Access Point and Mobile Terminal, and Pr (d0) is the received power at a known reference distance (d0). The typical value of d0 is 1 km for macrocells, 100m for outdoor microcells, and 1m for indoor picocells. The numerical value of Pr (d0) depends on different factors such as frequency, antenna heights, and antenna gains, is the path loss exponent. The typical values of ranges from 3 to 4 and 2 to 8 for macrocellular and microcellular environment. – Is a Zero mean Gaussian random variable that represents the statistical variation in Pr(x) caused by Shadowing. Typical std. deviation of is 12 dB. We observe the path loss model applied to the scenario. Pr (a ‘ d) = Pr (a) + Pr (a ‘ d) = Pr (a) + 10 log Sth = Smin + 10 log When the MT is located at point P, the assumption is that it can move in any direction with equal probability, i.e. the pdf of MT’s direction of motion is f = – †.’.(1) As per assumption, that MT’s direction of motion and speed remains the same from point P until it moves out of the coverage area of WLAN. As the distance of P from WLAN boundary is not very large, this assumption is realistic. The need for handoff to cellular network arises only if MTs direction of motion from P is in the range [ ] can move in both directions. Where = arctan otherwise the handoff initiation is false. The probability of false handoff initiation is using (1) is Pa = 1 – P (unfavourable event ) = 1 ‘ P ( favourable event ) = 1 – = 1 – †.’.(2) When the direction of motion of Mobile Terminal from P is, the time it takes to move out of the coverage area of WLAN cell i.e. old base station is given by time = from fig 3.1 Cos = Sec = , x = d sec Hence t = t= †.’.(3) Pdf of is f = â€Å"{† 1/(2†_1 ) -†_1†Ã¢â‚¬ _1 {0 otherwise from (3) , t is a function of i. e. t = g ( ) in [ ] [3] g(†)=dsec†/v Therefore pdf of t is given by f_t (t)=’_i’f_(† (†_i ) )/(g^’ (†_i ) ) †.’.(4) Where †i are the roots of equation t = g ( ) in [ ] And for each of these roots f†(†i)= for i = 1 and 2 f = + f = †.’.(5) Where g is derivative of g given by g = †.’.(6) = = g = t Using (5) (6), the pdf of t is given by f = †.’.(7) { 0 otherwise The probability of handoff failure is given by Pf = { 1 { P ( t ) { 0 †.’.(8) – handoff signaling delay and P ( t ) – is the probability that t when P (t ) = = = = arccos( ) †.’.(9) Using (8) and (9) we get Pf = { 1 { cos { 0 Pf = Since, †1 =arctan ( d/v†) Pf = Here, it shows that Probability of handoff failure depends on distance from point p to the boundary of the cell, velocity and handoff signaling delay †. The use of adaptive RSS threshold helps reducing the handoff failure probability as well as reducing unnecessary handovers. The exact value of Sth will depend on MT’s speed and handoff signaling delay at a particular time. Adaptive Sth is used to limit handoff failure. However, in this algorithm, the handoff from 3G network to a WLAN is not efficient when MTS traveling time inside a WLAN cell is less than the handover delay. This may lead to wastage of network resources. 3.3.2 Bandwidth based vertical handoff algorithm A Signal to Interference and Noise Ratio (SINR) Based algorithm Yang, in his paper,[7] presented a bandwidth based vertical handover decision method between WLANs and a Wideband Code Division Multiple Access (WCDMA) network using Signal to Interference and Noise Ratio (SINR) algorithm[7]. The SINR calculation of the WLAN (wireless LAN) signals is converted into an equivalent Signal to Interference and noise Ratio to be compared with the Signal to Interference and noise Ratio of the Wideband Code Division Multiple Access channel †AP =†AP [(1+ †BS/ †BS) WBS/ WAP -1] where †AP and †BS are the Signal to Interference and noise Ratio at the mobile terminal when associated with Wireless local area network and Wideband Code Division Multiple Access, respectively. † is the dB gap between the uncoded Quadrature Amplitude Modulation and channel capacity, minus the coding gain, and †AP equals to 3dB for Wireless local area network and †BS equals to 3dB for Wireless local area network, as stated by the authors. WAP and WBS are the carrier bandwidth of wireless local area network and Wideband Code Division Multiple Access links. Signal to Interference and Noise Ratio based handovers can provide users with higher overall throughput than RSS based handovers since the available throughput is directly dependent on the Signal to Interference and Noise Ratio, and this algorithm results in a balanced load between the wireless local area network and the Wideband Code Division Multiple Access networks. But such an algorithm may also int roduce excessive handovers with the variation of the Signal to Interference and Noise Ratio causing the node to hand over back and forth between two networks, commonly referred to as ping-pong effect. A Wrong Decision Probability (WDP) Prediction Based algorithm C.Chi, Cao, Hao and Liu, in their paper ‘Modeling and analysis of Handover algorithms’, have proposed a Vertical Handover decision algorithm based [8] on the Wrong Decision Probability (WDP) prediction. The Wrong Decision Probability is calculated by combining the probability of unnecessary handoff and the missing handoff. Assume that there are two networks i and j with overlapping coverage, and bi and bj are their available bandwidth. An unnecessary handoff occurs when the mobile terminal is in network i and decides to handoff to j, but bj is less than bi after this decision. A missing handoff occurs when the mobile terminal decides to stay connected to network i, but bi is less than bj after this decision. A handover from network i to network j is initiated if Pr † x l0 or bj – bi ‘ L, where Pr is the unnecessary handover probability, † is the traffic load of network i, l0 = 0.001, and L is a bandwidth threshold. The authors show that this alg orithm is able to reduce the Wrong Decision Probability and balance the traffic load; however, received signal strength is not considered. A handoff to a target network with high bandwidth but weak received signal is not desirable as it may bring discontinuity in the service. 3.3.3 Cost Function based vertical handoff algorithm A Cost Function Based algorithm with Normalization and Weights Distribution Hasswa, N. Nasser, and H. Hassanein, in their paper ‘A context-aware cross-layer archi- tecture for next generation heterogeneous wireless networks’, have proposed a cost function based handover decision algorithm in which the normalization and weights distribution methods are provided. A quality factor of network is used to evaluate the performance of a handover target candidate as Qi = WCCi + WSSi + WPPi + WdDi + WfFi where Qi is the quality factor of network i, Ci, Si, Pi, Di and Fi stand for cost of service, security, power consumption, network condition and network performance, and Wc, Ws, Wp, Wd andWf are the weights of these network parameters. Since each network parameter has a different unit, a normalization procedure is used and the normalized quality factor for network n is calculated as Wc(1/Ci) WSSi WP(1/Pi) Qi = †__________ + __________ + _______ max((1/C1),’..(1/Cn)) max(S1,’..Sn) max((1/P1),’..(1/Pn)) WdDi WfFi + ________ + ________ max (D1,’..Dn) max(F1,’..Fn) A handoff necessity estimator is also introduced to avoid unnecessary handovers High system throughput and user’s satisfaction can be achieved by introducing Hasswa’s algorithm, however, some of the parameters such as security and interference levels are difficult to calculate. A Weighted Function Based Algorithm R. Tawil, G. Pujolle, and O. Salazar in their paper presented a weighted function based[10] Vertical handover decision algorithm which transfers the Vertical handover decision calculation to the visited network instead of the mobile terminal. The weighted function of a candidate network is defined as Qi = WBBi +WDp 1/DPi+WC 1/Ci Where Qi represents the quality of network i, Bi, DPi and Ci are bandwidth, dropping probability and monetary cost of service, and WB, WDp and WC are their weights, where, WB +WDp +WC = 1 The candidate network with the highest score of Qi is selected as the handover target. By giving the calculation to the visited network, the resource of the mobile node can be saved so that the system is able to achieve short handoff decision delay, low handoff blocking rate and higher throughput. However, the method requires extra cooperation between the mobile node and the point of attachment of the visited network, which may cause additional delay and excessive load to the network when there are large number of mobile nodes. 3.3.4 ANN based vertical handoff algorithm A Multilayer Feedforward Artificial Neural Network Based Algorithm N. Nasser, S. Guizani, and E. Al-Masri, in their paper, developed a [11] Vertical handover decision algorithm based on artificial neural networks (ANN). The topology of the ANN consists of an input layer, a hidden layer and an output layer. The input layer consists of five nodes representing various parameters such as cost, RSS, bandwidth etc of the handoff target candidate networks. The hidden layer consists of variable number of nodes (neurons) which are basically activation functions. The output layer has one node which generates the ID of the candidate network of the handover target. All the neurons use sigmoid activation function. The authors have assumed the same cost function as in this work and also for ANN training they have generated a series of user preference sets with randomly selected weights. Then the system has to be trained to select the best candidate network among all the candidates. The authors have reported that by properly selecting the learning rate and the acc eptable error value, the system is able to find the best available candidate network successfully. Nevertheless, the algorithm suffers from a long delay during the training process which may lead to connection breakdown. A Method That Uses Two Neural Networks Pahlavan, in his paper, has proposed two neural [12] network based decision methods of vertical handoff. Here, only the vertical handoff mechanism is discussed. In the method for vertical handoff, an artificial neural network is used for handoffs from the Wireless local area network to the General Packet Radio Service (GPRS). The Artificial neural network consists of an input layer, two middle layers and an output layer. Mobile node does periodical measurements of RSS and five most recent samples of RSS are fed into the ANN. The output is a binary signal: The value ‘1’ leads to a handover to the General Packet Radio Service, and the value ‘0’ means that the mobile terminal should remain connected to the access point. The ANN is trained before it is used in the decision process. Training is done by taking a number of RSS samples from the access point while minimizing the handover delay and ping-pong effect. This algorithm can reduce the number of handovers by eliminating the ping-pong effect, but the paper does not provide details on how exactly the neural network is trained and why the particular parameters are taken into consideration. This algorithm also has the short coming of the algorithm complexity and the training process to be performed in advance. Summary: From the above discussion, it can be concluded that RSS based Vertical handoff algorithms can be used between microcellular and macro cellular networks. The network candidate with most stable RSS being the selection criteria. These algorithms are simple, but due to the fluctuation of RSS, they are less reliable. Bandwidth based Vertical handoff algorithms can be used between any two heterogeneous networks. The network candidate with highest bandwidth is the selection criteria. These algorithms are simple. But, due to the changing available bandwidth, these algorithms are less reliable. Cost function based Vertical handoff algorithms can be used between any two heterogeneous networks. Here, the inputs are various parameters such as cost, bandwidth, security etc The network candidate with highest overall performance is the selection criteria. These algorithms are complex. But, due to the difficulty in measuring parameters such as security etc, they are less reliable. ANN and Fuzzy logic based Vertical handoff algorithms can be used between any two heterogeneous networks. Here, the inputs are various parameters such as RSS, cost, bandwidth, security etc depending on different methods. The network candidate with highest overall performance is the selection criteria. These algorithms are very complex. But, due to training of system, they are highly reliable. ‘ Chapter-4 Algorithms and Methodologies 4.1 Variance based vertical handoff algorithm Proposed algorithm is variance based algorithm which calculates the variance of parameters such as delay, jitter, bandwidth and packet loss for various networks such as UMTS,WLAN,Wimax and the network with most of the parameters with minimum variance being selected. In our proposed algorithm, handoff metrics such as delay, bandwidth, jitter, packet loss etc are included Fig 4.1 Flow Chart of variance based algorithm Variance = ‘(x-†)’^2/N , where x is any metrics such as delay, bandwidth, jitter etc and † is its mean of a set of samples of the particular parameters. N is set of samples. In this algorithm, whenever the signal strength of a mobile terminal drops below threshold ,there is request from mobile terminal for handoff to the network which is accessible. The algorithm checks whether the visitor network available or not, if visitor network is available ,it will broadcast required parameters such as packet delay, jitter, packet loss and bandwidth etc. The variance of the broadcasted parameters are calculated based on the number of samples received for each parameter. Then, the candidate network (Visitor network) having most of the minimum variance of the parameter is selected. In this case, variance of delay, jitter, packet loss and bandwidth are considered for the set of 100 samples received. Here, variance of packet delay is calculated as: †_d^2 = ‘(D-†_d)’^2/N Where, †d is the variance of the packet delay parameter, D is the packet delay at that instant ,†d is the mean of the packet delay values received and N is the total number of samples for packet delay parameters(which is 100 in this case). Similarly, variance of bandwidth is calculated as: †_B^2 = ‘(B-†_B)’^2/N Where, †B is the variance of the Bandwidth parameter, B is the Bandwidth at that instant ,†B is the mean of the bandwidth values received and N is the total number of samples for bandwidth parameters(which is 100 in this case). In the same way, variance of Jitter is calculated as: †_J^2 = ‘(J-†_J)’^2/N Where, †J is the variance of the Jitter parameter, J is the Jitter at that instant ,†J is the mean of the jitter values received and N is the total number of samples for jitter parameters(which is 100 in this case). In the same way, variance of Packet loss is calculated as: †_P^2 = ‘(P-†_P)’^2/N Where, †P is the variance of the packet loss parameter, P is the packet loss at that instant ,†P is the mean of the packet loss values received and N is the total number of samples for packet loss parameters(which is 100 in this case). Out of these variance †_d^2 , †_B^2, †_J^2, †_P^2, the candidate network most of them with minimum values will be selected. Score† =’arg’_(i=1)^MMAX(min †_d^2 , †_B^2, †_J^2, †_P^2) The candidate network which satisfies above equation is selected. Where M is the number of candidate network. 4.2 SNR based vertical handoff algorithm Proposed algorithm is an SNR based algorithm which calculates the value of SNR of parameters such as delay, jitter, bandwidth and packet loss for various networks such as UMTS, WLAN, Wimax with the network with maximum SNR being selected. In our proposed algorithm, handoff metrics such as delay, bandwidth, jitter, packet loss, etc are included Pages: Page 1, Page 2

Compare and Contrast Research Methods Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 2

Compare and Contrast Research Methods - Essay Example Similarity of data sets used in meta-analysis is in terms of the studies addressing the same research question. Meta-analysis method uses the characteristics of data to make conclusions rather than making general conclusions about data. The method applies when a research deals with quantitative data. Use of secondary data poses the risk of unreliability of meta-analysis. Therefore, researchers need to test the accuracy of secondary data before using it to make conclusions in a research (LaValley, 2005). Other methods of research Questionnaire-Based survey is another research method used in statistics. The method involves isolating samples from a population, obtaining data from the samples and making conclusions about the population based on the sample. Questionnaire method uses questions to obtain data from the field. The method translates research objectives into questions. Focus group is another qualitative research method that goes beyond explaining the quantitative aspects of dat a. Focus group refers to all participants who take part in discussions about a research. This method applies for open-ended research studies that cover a wide range of objectives (Jowett & O’Toole, 2006). Historical research method involves studying what happened in the past and identifying the push factors for these past events. Historians use this method to explain past events by applying scientific skills, conscience and other tools of analysis (Methods Network, 2011). Observation method involves humans using their senses to determine the events taking place and their effects. Observation method can be direct or indirect. Direct observation involves active actions of the researcher to collect data while indirect observation involves collecting data from recorded information, for example, from movies (Management Study Guide, 2012). Action research method involves participation of a group of people who suffer from a similar problem. Attempts to solve their problem reveal the best ways of solving such problems. Applications of research methods in the business sector Historical research is the research method that most business organizations use in their operations. This is because the method involves reviewing past data in the history of an organization. Scholars will be interested in determining the impacts of past events on their performance. The businesses must use past data to identify different variables that affect their performance. Researchers can also use questionnaire method to assess the impact of various strategies on employees and other members of the organizations. Employees answer the questions that the management asks through the questionnaires. The answers help the management in determining whether certain policies are successful in the research. Researchers use focus group method to explain their financial statements. This research method explains quantitative data to give it extra meaning. Businesses explain their financial statements by giving reasons that lead to a loss or profit. Businesses use observation method in observing trends in a population including consumption of goods and services. Action research method is the result of participation of members who suffer from the same problems. Most researchers use action research method to determine the impacts of change among members of the organizations. Change affects all members of the organization and their attempts to deal with the effects reveal the best w

Australian Food and Nutrition Policy Research Paper

Australian Food and Nutrition Policy - Research Paper Example These diseases are now prevalent among Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander populations. Lee et al (1994) investigated apparent per capita food and nutrient intake in six remote Australian Aboriginal communities. They found that in comparison to the rest of the Australian community, intake of sugars and sweetened soft drinks were much higher, and intake of whole grains, fruit and vegetables were much lower in Aboriginal communities. Furthermore, they found that white sugar, white flour, bread and meat provided over 50% of the apparent total energy intake for the people of these Aboriginal communities. The high intake of refined carbohydrates and the high percentage of energy intake from meat with excessive visible fat may help explain the prevalence of obesity, diabetes and cardiovascular disease in Aboriginal communities. Hence there is a real need in these communities for a program that will help people modify their patterns of food consumption. A high fibre intake program is proposed to promote consumption of whole grains, vegetables and fruit in Aboriginal populatio n, in order to reduce the prevalence of diet-related diseases. To improve nutrition and public health ... s action plan has been developed for all Australians, and the promotion of Indigenous health is also included; the companion document to the EWA program is the National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Nutrition Strategy and Action Plan (NATSINSAP). The proposed high fibre intake program is intended to reinforce the importance of a diet rich in fruits, vegetables and whole grain products as outlined by the EWA program, and to improve the accessibility of these foods in remote and rural communities to meet the dietary needs of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people. Program aim The high fibre intake program aims to increase the intake of dietary fibre in Aboriginal communities by promoting consumption of whole grain products, fresh vegetables and fruit in order to reduce and eventually eliminate the health gap between Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people and the rest of the Australian population. It is hoped that modifying consumption patterns in this way will reduce the incidence of diet-related diseases in these populations. Program objectives Increase the availability of whole grain products in remote and rural food retail sectors. Increase the availability of fresh vegetable and fruit, and also increase the proportion of caned vegetables and fruit, or dry vegetables and fruit, and juices without added sugar in remote food retail sectors. Disseminate the concept of high fibre intake among the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities. Promote a dietary shift from high fat and high refined carbohydrates to high fibre, low fat, and low refined carbohydrate in the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander populations. Rationale A great deal of scientific research has been dedicated to the study of the relationship between dietary fibre and